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Title: Programming FAQ — Python 3.16.0a0 documentation

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Description: Contents: Programming FAQ- General questions- Is there a source code-level debugger with breakpoints and single-stepping?, Are there tools to help find bugs or perform static analysis?, How can I c...

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Links:

	https://www.python.org/
Table of Contents	https://docs.python.org/3.16/contents.html
Programming FAQ	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html
General questions	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#general-questions
Core language	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#core-language
Numbers and strings	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#numbers-and-strings
Performance	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#performance
Sequences (tuples/lists)	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#sequences-tuples-lists
Objects	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#objects
Modules	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#modules
General Python FAQ	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/general.html
Design and History FAQ	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/design.html
Report a bug	https://docs.python.org/3.16/bugs.html
Improve this page	https://docs.python.org/3.16/improve-page-nojs.html
Show source	https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/main/Doc/faq/programming.rst?plain=1
index	https://docs.python.org/3.16/genindex.html
modules	https://docs.python.org/3.16/py-modindex.html
next	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/design.html
previous	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/general.html
Python	https://www.python.org/
3.16.0a0 Documentation	https://docs.python.org/3.16/index.html
Python Frequently Asked Questions	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/index.html
Programming FAQ	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html
Programming FAQ	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id2
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#programming-faq
Programming FAQ	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#programming-faq
General questions	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#general-questions
Is there a source code-level debugger with breakpoints and single-stepping?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#is-there-a-source-code-level-debugger-with-breakpoints-and-single-stepping
Are there tools to help find bugs or perform static analysis?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#are-there-tools-to-help-find-bugs-or-perform-static-analysis
How can I create a stand-alone binary from a Python script?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-can-i-create-a-stand-alone-binary-from-a-python-script
Are there coding standards or a style guide for Python programs?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#are-there-coding-standards-or-a-style-guide-for-python-programs
Core language	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#core-language
Why am I getting an UnboundLocalError when the variable has a value?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#why-am-i-getting-an-unboundlocalerror-when-the-variable-has-a-value
What are the rules for local and global variables in Python?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#what-are-the-rules-for-local-and-global-variables-in-python
Why do lambdas defined in a loop with different values all return the same result?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#why-do-lambdas-defined-in-a-loop-with-different-values-all-return-the-same-result
How do I share global variables across modules?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-do-i-share-global-variables-across-modules
What are the “best practices” for using import in a module?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#what-are-the-best-practices-for-using-import-in-a-module
Why are default values shared between objects?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#why-are-default-values-shared-between-objects
How can I pass optional or keyword parameters from one function to another?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-can-i-pass-optional-or-keyword-parameters-from-one-function-to-another
What is the difference between arguments and parameters?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#what-is-the-difference-between-arguments-and-parameters
Why did changing list ‘y’ also change list ‘x’?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#why-did-changing-list-y-also-change-list-x
How do I write a function with output parameters (call by reference)?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-do-i-write-a-function-with-output-parameters-call-by-reference
How do you make a higher order function in Python?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-do-you-make-a-higher-order-function-in-python
How do I copy an object in Python?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-do-i-copy-an-object-in-python
How can I find the methods or attributes of an object?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-can-i-find-the-methods-or-attributes-of-an-object
How can my code discover the name of an object?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-can-my-code-discover-the-name-of-an-object
What’s up with the comma operator’s precedence?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#what-s-up-with-the-comma-operator-s-precedence
Is there an equivalent of C’s “?:” ternary operator?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#is-there-an-equivalent-of-c-s-ternary-operator
Is it possible to write obfuscated one-liners in Python?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#is-it-possible-to-write-obfuscated-one-liners-in-python
What does the slash(/) in the parameter list of a function mean?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#what-does-the-slash-in-the-parameter-list-of-a-function-mean
Numbers and strings	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#numbers-and-strings
How do I specify hexadecimal and octal integers?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-do-i-specify-hexadecimal-and-octal-integers
Why does -22 // 10 return -3?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#why-does-22-10-return-3
How do I get int literal attribute instead of SyntaxError?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-do-i-get-int-literal-attribute-instead-of-syntaxerror
How do I convert a string to a number?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-do-i-convert-a-string-to-a-number
How do I convert a number to a string?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-do-i-convert-a-number-to-a-string
How do I modify a string in place?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-do-i-modify-a-string-in-place
How do I use strings to call functions/methods?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-do-i-use-strings-to-call-functions-methods
Is there an equivalent to Perl’s chomp() for removing trailing newlines from strings?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#is-there-an-equivalent-to-perl-s-chomp-for-removing-trailing-newlines-from-strings
Is there a scanf() or sscanf() equivalent?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#is-there-a-scanf-or-sscanf-equivalent
What does UnicodeDecodeError or UnicodeEncodeError error mean?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#what-does-unicodedecodeerror-or-unicodeencodeerror-error-mean
Can I end a raw string with an odd number of backslashes?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#can-i-end-a-raw-string-with-an-odd-number-of-backslashes
Performance	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#performance
My program is too slow. How do I speed it up?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#my-program-is-too-slow-how-do-i-speed-it-up
What is the most efficient way to concatenate many strings together?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#what-is-the-most-efficient-way-to-concatenate-many-strings-together
Sequences (tuples/lists)	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#sequences-tuples-lists
How do I convert between tuples and lists?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-do-i-convert-between-tuples-and-lists
What’s a negative index?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#what-s-a-negative-index
How do I iterate over a sequence in reverse order?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-do-i-iterate-over-a-sequence-in-reverse-order
How do you remove duplicates from a list?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-do-you-remove-duplicates-from-a-list
How do you remove multiple items from a list?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-do-you-remove-multiple-items-from-a-list
How do you make an array in Python?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-do-you-make-an-array-in-python
How do I create a multidimensional list?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-do-i-create-a-multidimensional-list
How do I apply a method or function to a sequence of objects?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-do-i-apply-a-method-or-function-to-a-sequence-of-objects
Why does a_tuple[i] += [‘item’] raise an exception when the addition works?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#why-does-a-tuple-i-item-raise-an-exception-when-the-addition-works
I want to do a complicated sort: can you do a Schwartzian Transform in Python?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#i-want-to-do-a-complicated-sort-can-you-do-a-schwartzian-transform-in-python
How can I sort one list by values from another list?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-can-i-sort-one-list-by-values-from-another-list
Objects	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#objects
What is a class?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#what-is-a-class
What is a method?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#what-is-a-method
What is self?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#what-is-self
How do I check if an object is an instance of a given class or of a subclass of it?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-do-i-check-if-an-object-is-an-instance-of-a-given-class-or-of-a-subclass-of-it
What is delegation?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#what-is-delegation
How do I call a method defined in a base class from a derived class that extends it?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-do-i-call-a-method-defined-in-a-base-class-from-a-derived-class-that-extends-it
How can I organize my code to make it easier to change the base class?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-can-i-organize-my-code-to-make-it-easier-to-change-the-base-class
How do I create static class data and static class methods?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-do-i-create-static-class-data-and-static-class-methods
How can I overload constructors (or methods) in Python?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-can-i-overload-constructors-or-methods-in-python
I try to use __spam and I get an error about _SomeClassName__spam.	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#i-try-to-use-spam-and-i-get-an-error-about-someclassname-spam
My class defines __del__ but it is not called when I delete the object.	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#my-class-defines-del-but-it-is-not-called-when-i-delete-the-object
How do I get a list of all instances of a given class?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-do-i-get-a-list-of-all-instances-of-a-given-class
Why does the result of id() appear to be not unique?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#why-does-the-result-of-id-appear-to-be-not-unique
When can I rely on identity tests with the is operator?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#when-can-i-rely-on-identity-tests-with-the-is-operator
How can a subclass control what data is stored in an immutable instance?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-can-a-subclass-control-what-data-is-stored-in-an-immutable-instance
How do I cache method calls?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-do-i-cache-method-calls
Modules	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#modules
How do I create a .pyc file?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-do-i-create-a-pyc-file
How do I find the current module name?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-do-i-find-the-current-module-name
How can I have modules that mutually import each other?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-can-i-have-modules-that-mutually-import-each-other
__import__(‘x.y.z’) returns ; how do I get z?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#import-x-y-z-returns-module-x-how-do-i-get-z
When I edit an imported module and reimport it, the changes don’t show up. Why does this happen?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#when-i-edit-an-imported-module-and-reimport-it-the-changes-don-t-show-up-why-does-this-happen
General questions	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id3
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#general-questions
Is there a source code-level debugger with breakpoints and single-stepping?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id4
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#is-there-a-source-code-level-debugger-with-breakpoints-and-single-stepping
breakpoint()	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/functions.html#breakpoint
documented in the Library Reference Manual	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/pdb.html#module-pdb
idlelib	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/idle.html#module-idlelib
pywin32	https://github.com/mhammond/pywin32
ActivePython	https://www.activestate.com/products/python/
Eric	https://eric-ide.python-projects.org/
trepan3k	https://github.com/rocky/python3-trepan/
Visual Studio Code	https://code.visualstudio.com/
Wing IDE	https://wingware.com/
PyCharm	https://www.jetbrains.com/pycharm/
Are there tools to help find bugs or perform static analysis?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id5
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#are-there-tools-to-help-find-bugs-or-perform-static-analysis
Ruff	https://docs.astral.sh/ruff/
Pylint	https://pylint.readthedocs.io/
Pyflakes	https://github.com/PyCQA/pyflakes
mypy	https://mypy-lang.org/
ty	https://docs.astral.sh/ty/
Pyrefly	https://pyrefly.org/
pytype	https://github.com/google/pytype
How can I create a stand-alone binary from a Python script?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id6
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-can-i-create-a-stand-alone-binary-from-a-python-script
Tools/freeze	https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Tools/freeze
Nuitka	https://nuitka.net/
PyInstaller	https://pyinstaller.org/
PyOxidizer	https://pyoxidizer.readthedocs.io/en/stable/
cx_Freeze	https://marcelotduarte.github.io/cx_Freeze/
py2app	https://github.com/ronaldoussoren/py2app
py2exe	https://www.py2exe.org/
Are there coding standards or a style guide for Python programs?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id7
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#are-there-coding-standards-or-a-style-guide-for-python-programs
PEP 8	https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/
Core language	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id8
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#core-language
Why am I getting an UnboundLocalError when the variable has a value?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id9
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#why-am-i-getting-an-unboundlocalerror-when-the-variable-has-a-value
UnboundLocalError	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/exceptions.html#UnboundLocalError
nonlocal	https://docs.python.org/3.16/reference/simple_stmts.html#nonlocal
What are the rules for local and global variables in Python?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id10
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#what-are-the-rules-for-local-and-global-variables-in-python
global	https://docs.python.org/3.16/reference/simple_stmts.html#global
Why do lambdas defined in a loop with different values all return the same result?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id11
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#why-do-lambdas-defined-in-a-loop-with-different-values-all-return-the-same-result
How do I share global variables across modules?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id12
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-do-i-share-global-variables-across-modules
What are the “best practices” for using import in a module?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id13
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#what-are-the-best-practices-for-using-import-in-a-module
sys	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/sys.html#module-sys
os	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/os.html#module-os
argparse	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/argparse.html#module-argparse
re	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/re.html#module-re
dateutil	https://pypi.org/project/dateutil/
requests	https://pypi.org/project/requests/
tzdata	https://pypi.org/project/tzdata/
sys.modules	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/sys.html#sys.modules
Why are default values shared between objects?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id14
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#why-are-default-values-shared-between-objects
How can I pass optional or keyword parameters from one function to another?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id15
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-can-i-pass-optional-or-keyword-parameters-from-one-function-to-another
What is the difference between arguments and parameters?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id16
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#what-is-the-difference-between-arguments-and-parameters
Parameters	https://docs.python.org/3.16/glossary.html#term-parameter
arguments	https://docs.python.org/3.16/glossary.html#term-argument
Why did changing list ‘y’ also change list ‘x’?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id17
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#why-did-changing-list-y-also-change-list-x
mutable	https://docs.python.org/3.16/glossary.html#term-mutable
append()	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/stdtypes.html#sequence.append
immutable	https://docs.python.org/3.16/glossary.html#term-immutable
sorted(y)	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/functions.html#sorted
list	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/stdtypes.html#list
dict	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/stdtypes.html#dict
set	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/stdtypes.html#set
str	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/stdtypes.html#str
int	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/functions.html#int
tuple	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/stdtypes.html#tuple
is	https://docs.python.org/3.16/reference/expressions.html#is
id()	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/functions.html#id
How do I write a function with output parameters (call by reference)?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id18
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-do-i-write-a-function-with-output-parameters-call-by-reference
How do you make a higher order function in Python?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id19
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-do-you-make-a-higher-order-function-in-python
How do I copy an object in Python?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id20
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-do-i-copy-an-object-in-python
copy.copy()	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/copy.html#copy.copy
copy.deepcopy()	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/copy.html#copy.deepcopy
copy()	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/stdtypes.html#dict.copy
How can I find the methods or attributes of an object?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id21
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-can-i-find-the-methods-or-attributes-of-an-object
dir(x)	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/functions.html#dir
How can my code discover the name of an object?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id22
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-can-my-code-discover-the-name-of-an-object
What’s up with the comma operator’s precedence?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id23
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#what-s-up-with-the-comma-operator-s-precedence
Is there an equivalent of C’s “?:” ternary operator?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id24
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#is-there-an-equivalent-of-c-s-ternary-operator
Is it possible to write obfuscated one-liners in Python?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id25
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#is-it-possible-to-write-obfuscated-one-liners-in-python
lambda	https://docs.python.org/3.16/reference/expressions.html#lambda
What does the slash(/) in the parameter list of a function mean?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id26
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#what-does-the-slash-in-the-parameter-list-of-a-function-mean
divmod()	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/functions.html#divmod
divmod()	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/functions.html#divmod
Numbers and strings	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id27
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#numbers-and-strings
How do I specify hexadecimal and octal integers?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id28
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-do-i-specify-hexadecimal-and-octal-integers
Why does -22 // 10 return -3?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id29
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#why-does-22-10-return-3
How do I get int literal attribute instead of SyntaxError?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id30
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-do-i-get-int-literal-attribute-instead-of-syntaxerror
SyntaxError	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/exceptions.html#SyntaxError
How do I convert a string to a number?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id31
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-do-i-convert-a-string-to-a-number
int()	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/functions.html#int
float()	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/functions.html#float
ValueError	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/exceptions.html#ValueError
eval()	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/functions.html#eval
eval()	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/functions.html#eval
How do I convert a number to a string?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id32
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-do-i-convert-a-number-to-a-string
str()	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/stdtypes.html#str
hex()	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/functions.html#hex
oct()	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/functions.html#oct
f-strings	https://docs.python.org/3.16/reference/lexical_analysis.html#f-strings
Format string syntax	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/string.html#formatstrings
How do I modify a string in place?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id33
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-do-i-modify-a-string-in-place
io.StringIO	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/io.html#io.StringIO
array	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/array.html#module-array
How do I use strings to call functions/methods?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id34
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-do-i-use-strings-to-call-functions-methods
getattr()	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/functions.html#getattr
getattr()	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/functions.html#getattr
locals()	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/functions.html#locals
Is there an equivalent to Perl’s chomp() for removing trailing newlines from strings?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id35
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#is-there-an-equivalent-to-perl-s-chomp-for-removing-trailing-newlines-from-strings
Is there a scanf() or sscanf() equivalent?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id36
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#is-there-a-scanf-or-sscanf-equivalent
split()	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/stdtypes.html#str.split
int()	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/functions.html#int
float()	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/functions.html#float
What does UnicodeDecodeError or UnicodeEncodeError error mean?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id37
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#what-does-unicodedecodeerror-or-unicodeencodeerror-error-mean
Unicode HOWTO	https://docs.python.org/3.16/howto/unicode.html#unicode-howto
Can I end a raw string with an odd number of backslashes?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id38
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#can-i-end-a-raw-string-with-an-odd-number-of-backslashes
os.path.join()	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/os.path.html#os.path.join
language reference	https://docs.python.org/3.16/reference/lexical_analysis.html#strings
Performance	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id39
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#performance
My program is too slow. How do I speed it up?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id40
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#my-program-is-too-slow-how-do-i-speed-it-up
CPython	https://docs.python.org/3.16/glossary.html#term-CPython
profile	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/profile.html#module-profile
timeit	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/timeit.html#module-timeit
Built-in Types	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/stdtypes.html#bltin-types
collections	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/collections.html#module-collections
list.sort()	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/stdtypes.html#list.sort
sorted()	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/functions.html#sorted
Sorting Techniques	https://docs.python.org/3.16/howto/sorting.html#sortinghowto
Cython	https://cython.org
write a C extension module	https://docs.python.org/3.16/extending/index.html#extending-index
performance tips	https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonSpeed/PerformanceTips
What is the most efficient way to concatenate many strings together?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id41
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#what-is-the-most-efficient-way-to-concatenate-many-strings-together
str	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/stdtypes.html#str
bytes	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/stdtypes.html#bytes
str	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/stdtypes.html#str
str.join()	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/stdtypes.html#str.join
io.StringIO	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/io.html#io.StringIO
bytes	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/stdtypes.html#bytes
bytearray	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/stdtypes.html#bytearray
Sequences (tuples/lists)	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id42
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#sequences-tuples-lists
How do I convert between tuples and lists?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id43
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-do-i-convert-between-tuples-and-lists
tuple()	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/stdtypes.html#tuple
What’s a negative index?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id44
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#what-s-a-negative-index
How do I iterate over a sequence in reverse order?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id45
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-do-i-iterate-over-a-sequence-in-reverse-order
reversed()	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/functions.html#reversed
How do you remove duplicates from a list?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id46
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-do-you-remove-duplicates-from-a-list
https://code.activestate.com/recipes/52560/	https://code.activestate.com/recipes/52560/
hashable	https://docs.python.org/3.16/glossary.html#term-hashable
How do you remove multiple items from a list?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id47
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-do-you-remove-multiple-items-from-a-list
How do you make an array in Python?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id48
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-do-you-make-an-array-in-python
NumPy	https://numpy.org/
How do I create a multidimensional list?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id49
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-do-i-create-a-multidimensional-list
NumPy	https://numpy.org/
How do I apply a method or function to a sequence of objects?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id50
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-do-i-apply-a-method-or-function-to-a-sequence-of-objects
list comprehension	https://docs.python.org/3.16/glossary.html#term-list-comprehension
for	https://docs.python.org/3.16/reference/compound_stmts.html#for
Why does a_tuple[i] += [‘item’] raise an exception when the addition works?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id51
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#why-does-a-tuple-i-item-raise-an-exception-when-the-addition-works
__iadd__()	https://docs.python.org/3.16/reference/datamodel.html#object.__iadd__
extend()	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/stdtypes.html#sequence.extend
list.extend()	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/stdtypes.html#list.extend
I want to do a complicated sort: can you do a Schwartzian Transform in Python?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id52
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#i-want-to-do-a-complicated-sort-can-you-do-a-schwartzian-transform-in-python
list.sort()	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/stdtypes.html#list.sort
How can I sort one list by values from another list?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id53
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-can-i-sort-one-list-by-values-from-another-list
Objects	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id54
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#objects
What is a class?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id55
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#what-is-a-class
What is a method?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id56
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#what-is-a-method
What is self?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id57
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#what-is-self
Why must ‘self’ be used explicitly in method definitions and calls?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/design.html#why-self
How do I check if an object is an instance of a given class or of a subclass of it?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id58
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-do-i-check-if-an-object-is-an-instance-of-a-given-class-or-of-a-subclass-of-it
isinstance(obj, cls)	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/functions.html#isinstance
isinstance()	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/functions.html#isinstance
abstract base class	https://docs.python.org/3.16/glossary.html#term-abstract-base-class
method resolution order	https://docs.python.org/3.16/glossary.html#term-method-resolution-order
isinstance()	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/functions.html#isinstance
What is delegation?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id59
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#what-is-delegation
__getattr__()	https://docs.python.org/3.16/reference/datamodel.html#object.__getattr__
the language reference	https://docs.python.org/3.16/reference/datamodel.html#attribute-access
__setattr__()	https://docs.python.org/3.16/reference/datamodel.html#object.__setattr__
__setattr__()	https://docs.python.org/3.16/reference/datamodel.html#object.__setattr__
self.__dict__	https://docs.python.org/3.16/reference/datamodel.html#object.__dict__
How do I call a method defined in a base class from a derived class that extends it?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id60
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-do-i-call-a-method-defined-in-a-base-class-from-a-derived-class-that-extends-it
super()	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/functions.html#super
super()	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/functions.html#super
method resolution order	https://docs.python.org/3.16/glossary.html#term-method-resolution-order
How can I organize my code to make it easier to change the base class?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id61
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-can-i-organize-my-code-to-make-it-easier-to-change-the-base-class
How do I create static class data and static class methods?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id62
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-do-i-create-static-class-data-and-static-class-methods
How can I overload constructors (or methods) in Python?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id63
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-can-i-overload-constructors-or-methods-in-python
I try to use __spam and I get an error about _SomeClassName__spam.	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id64
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#i-try-to-use-spam-and-i-get-an-error-about-someclassname-spam
private name mangling specifications	https://docs.python.org/3.16/reference/expressions.html#private-name-mangling
My class defines __del__ but it is not called when I delete the object.	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id65
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#my-class-defines-del-but-it-is-not-called-when-i-delete-the-object
del	https://docs.python.org/3.16/reference/simple_stmts.html#del
__del__()	https://docs.python.org/3.16/reference/datamodel.html#object.__del__
gc.collect()	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/gc.html#gc.collect
weakref	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/weakref.html#module-weakref
sys.stderr	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/sys.html#sys.stderr
How do I get a list of all instances of a given class?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id66
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-do-i-get-a-list-of-all-instances-of-a-given-class
Why does the result of id() appear to be not unique?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id67
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#why-does-the-result-of-id-appear-to-be-not-unique
id()	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/functions.html#id
When can I rely on identity tests with the is operator?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id68
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#when-can-i-rely-on-identity-tests-with-the-is-operator
int	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/functions.html#int
str	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/stdtypes.html#str
PEP 8	https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/
dict.pop()	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/stdtypes.html#dict.pop
How can a subclass control what data is stored in an immutable instance?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id69
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-can-a-subclass-control-what-data-is-stored-in-an-immutable-instance
__new__()	https://docs.python.org/3.16/reference/datamodel.html#object.__new__
__init__()	https://docs.python.org/3.16/reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__
How do I cache method calls?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id70
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-do-i-cache-method-calls
@functools.cached_property	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/functools.html#functools.cached_property
@functools.lru_cache	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/functools.html#functools.lru_cache
hashable	https://docs.python.org/3.16/glossary.html#term-hashable
__eq__()	https://docs.python.org/3.16/reference/datamodel.html#object.__eq__
__hash__()	https://docs.python.org/3.16/reference/datamodel.html#object.__hash__
Modules	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id71
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#modules
How do I create a .pyc file?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id72
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-do-i-create-a-pyc-file
PEP 3147	https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/
PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE	https://docs.python.org/3.16/using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE
py_compile	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/py_compile.html#module-py_compile
compileall	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/compileall.html#module-compileall
py_compile	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/py_compile.html#module-py_compile
compileall	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/compileall.html#module-compileall
How do I find the current module name?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id73
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-do-i-find-the-current-module-name
How can I have modules that mutually import each other?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id74
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#how-can-i-have-modules-that-mutually-import-each-other
__import__(‘x.y.z’) returns ; how do I get z?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id75
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#import-x-y-z-returns-module-x-how-do-i-get-z
import_module()	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/importlib.html#importlib.import_module
importlib	https://docs.python.org/3.16/library/importlib.html#module-importlib
When I edit an imported module and reimport it, the changes don’t show up. Why does this happen?	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#id76
¶	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#when-i-edit-an-imported-module-and-reimport-it-the-changes-don-t-show-up-why-does-this-happen
Table of Contents	https://docs.python.org/3.16/contents.html
Programming FAQ	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html
General questions	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#general-questions
Core language	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#core-language
Numbers and strings	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#numbers-and-strings
Performance	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#performance
Sequences (tuples/lists)	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#sequences-tuples-lists
Objects	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#objects
Modules	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html#modules
General Python FAQ	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/general.html
Design and History FAQ	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/design.html
Report a bug	https://docs.python.org/3.16/bugs.html
Improve this page	https://docs.python.org/3.16/improve-page-nojs.html
Show source	https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/main/Doc/faq/programming.rst?plain=1
index	https://docs.python.org/3.16/genindex.html
modules	https://docs.python.org/3.16/py-modindex.html
next	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/design.html
previous	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/general.html
Python	https://www.python.org/
3.16.0a0 Documentation	https://docs.python.org/3.16/index.html
Python Frequently Asked Questions	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/index.html
Programming FAQ	https://docs.python.org/3.16/faq/programming.html
Copyright	https://docs.python.org/3.16/copyright.html
History and License	https://docs.python.org/license.html
Please donate.	https://www.python.org/psf/donations/
Found a bug	https://docs.python.org/bugs.html
Sphinx	https://www.sphinx-doc.org/

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